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28.1.10
7.1.10
5.1.10
(This article was written as a response to the Bologna Process and the realization of the European Higher Education Area[EHEA] by 2010 based on the EUROSTAT Statistical Books 2009 Edition retrieved from eurostudent.eu)
Introduction
When it first began in 1998, the Bologna process (also known as the Bologna-Prague-Berlin Process) started up with the participation of the Ministers of 4 countries namely France, United Kingdom, Germany and Italy) and as it is today, the number of signatories to the Bologna Agreement has already reached 46. It can be described as a succesful revolution for the Europe higher education sector and one that can be proven to be as succesful as the European Economic Integration. The deepening of the Bologna process has gone a long way through a number of ministerial meetings, declarations and policy documents. Nevertheless, it is not only a top-down process but from time to time it has also result to a bottom-up cooperation.
While Europe has been a model of Regional and Economic Integration for other regions in the world, the EHEA (through the Bologna process) should also be taken into consideration as one of the education reforms in these other regions. After more than 10 years from the Bologna Declaration which aims to create a European Higher Education reform through the understanding and common interest of the signatory countries (not merely imposed upon them) has certainly reached a promising stage concerning the "social-dimension" of the Bologna Process:
We share the societal aspiration that the student body entering, participating in and completing higher education at all levels should reflect the diversity of our populations. We reaffirm the importance of students being able to complete their studies without obstacles related to their social and economic background. (London Communiqué 2007, 2.18)
The Bologna Process: Objectives
As mentioned earlier, the Bologna Process is an effort to create a European Higher Education Area by 2010, where students are able to benefit from the wide range of higher education courses - through the transparent and smoother recognition process of the respective degrees. It is done with the vision of creating a more competitive Higher Education Area beginning at the intraregional level. There are three key priorities in the Bologna process which consists of i) the introduction of the three cycle system (bachelor/master/doctorate), ii) quality assurance of the higher education system, and iii) recognition of qualifications and periods of study. These main objectives was later made detail through several reform tools to addressed the implementation of the Bologna reforms. The main features of the tools for the Bologna reform was through the transparent system based on the three cycle element in the plan since Berlin (2003). There was also the introduction of a credit transfer and accumulation system (the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, ECTS) which was induced to remove barriers pertaining to students' mobility and clearer recognition of qualifications. A uniform outline containing the context, nature, status and level of the studies that were undertaken by the respective graduate was also widely used known as the Diploma Supplement.
The Realization
Previously, it was mentioned that the Bologna process was not only a top-down approach beginning at the ministerial level but it has developed to be a bottom-up process as well. It explains that the nature of the whole reform for the EHEA is decentralized as it has involved in 46 sovereign countries (EUROSTAT Statistical Books 2009 Edition) with no country as the leader. Each and every signatories drafts their own guidelines based on the Bologna Declaration themselves. This portrays the main element of the EHEA where Europe is in the reform phase of its higher education system - to become involved in forming a more diverse and adaptable system. The more visible changes in the higher education system of every country varies such as new degree structures, medium of language and many more.
Traditionally, matters related to higher education has been addressed solely at the national level and by respective ministries to handle this issue with limited discussion and cooperation among other countries in the region. However, the Bologna process through the ratified Bologna Declaration has made visible and can be pronounced as a more 'legitimate' pledge of all the member countries to reform the structures of their higher education system in a convergent way. It is made for these countries to engage in coordinating their policies. Again, the Bologna process seeks to modify and made better this position by addressing the (Higher Education) issue more internationally rather than just at the national level. The removal of barriers for students' mobility, smoother and more transparent recognition of degree certificates was chosen as amongst the main objective due to the fact that these are the factors that can create a common interest among all the member countries.
However, in the pursuit of academic mobility within the EHEA, this calls for a comprehensive measures not only in the reform tools but in the wide range of communicative skills by everyone involved in the process especially students and the academic staff. These significant issues is more of an 'embedded' one as it was not mentioned relatively in the Bologna Declaration. They include:
i) A different medium of instruction (language) in classes and academic materials.
ii) International communication skills
In other words, one has to be aware of the linguistic and communicative demands of this new system. Another issue that needs to be alerted amongst the spill-over effect of this reform is the cultural assimilation process that students or academic staff undergo. However, this particular issues should ot be seen on the negative aspect as we all now that culture is a dynamic process and it is never wrong to learn new ones from time to time (refer Culture Contact as A Dynamic Process). In fact, this was among the widely recognized strength of the Bologna Process where higher learning institutions that are involved in the program is known as melting pot for the exchange students for example Vi's-a-vis the Erasmus Program. The Erasmus Program is an effort by the European Union (EU) to facilitate the Bologna Process through funds and scholarships which is also part of the EU's flagship programme for worldwide academic cooperation, Erasmus Mundus.
As mentioned by Reichert and Tauch (2003),
“Preparing graduates for the European labour market is regarded as one of the three most prominent driving forces of the Bologna Process. Together with the enhancement of academic quality, this constitutes the most frequently mentioned force behind the Bologna Process, according to the representatives of ministries, rectors’ conferences and higher education institutions. Student associations also regard this as the most important driving force, together with the competitiveness of the national HE systems.”
To reflect on this, the Bologna process also aimed at a higher vision not only for European Higher Education Area but also, it works in line with the European Economic Integration to make Europe more advanced in both its economy and labour market. It is about the creation of a knowledge-based economy (k-economy), parallel with the recently-ratified Reform Treaty (also known as the Lisbon Agenda). There has been numerous effort done by the European Union and other institutions in Europe to strenghten the region and their relationship with other regions.
Freedom of Movement
"Mobility ...is one of the core elements of the Bologna Process, creating opportunities for personal growth, developing international cooperation between individuals and institutions, enhancing the quality of higher education and research, and giving substance to the European dimension" - London Communique, p. 2
The Bologna process which one of its main objective is to smoothen the mobility of students and academic staff in the region has significantly developed to create a single mrke for the higher education sector in Europe. This allies together with the European single market area to improve and reduce the gap between the rich and less richer nations in the region. The refor has witnessed measures taken by institutions of higher educatio to restructure their degree courses (bachelor/masters/doctorate) to become more competitive and meet the international standard. This in return will help to facilitate the recognition process of the students degrees thus accomplishing one of the main objctives of the Bologna reform.
Apart than this, it can be observed that more and more universities have widen their door to foreign staff (Jan Fiegel, 2009). Despite this benefitial new development as a result of the reform, the academic staff was alerted with other new rising matters. Although there are more oppurtunities for working abroad (intraregion) some academic staff discovered complications due to practicality issues. Matters such as pensions, access to health and social services and re-entry issues have been one of the main complications. Besides that, some countries do not recognise lecturers as being of equal status to those who are born-citizens of the country.
Demand for English
Despite all these rising issues, the Bologna process have seen and increased in its participation rather significantly. More and more countries have join the ally for this higher education reform and some other regions has taken measures to make the Bologna process as reference point to restructure their higher education market and them more competitive to the global market. When matters are becoming global, certainly there are other issues that would also arise - for example, the medium of instruction to serve the purpose of the Bologna reform.
There are increasing signs that more institutions of higher education are producing more English-based module for their degree courses. (Emma Gatti, 2008) Paul Bennet, the senior national offical at the University and College Union (UCU) also mentioned that institutions of higher education in Nordic countries and the Netherlands have rapidly increased their offer of master's degrees - in mainly disciplines that are taught in English while other EU member states are considering to undertake the same measure. As the Bologna reform is to also stimulate academic exchange, this whole range of new courses in English have created the demand for more English-speaking academicians/academic staff. This is one of the spill-over effects of the reform where the higher education industry is shifting towards the use of English. Although in the Bologna Declaration (1999) did not mention anywhere regarding the compulsory use of English language for its reform process, there seemed to be a common understanding among the participating countries.
The growing use of English and the preference for this particular language over the home-language of a country has always been an on-going issue in the EU. An excerpt on history - since the 2004 enlargement process, the EU has witnessed an increased from 11 to 20 working languages. Some might call this a "linguistic diversity" but this phenomena, so to speak, had later changed from time to time. A single language has (over time) superceeded the use of other working languages in the EU; which is English. Having said this, one of the growing compications in relation with the Bologna reform is about the same notion on language. For exaple in the Erasmus program by the Eurpean Union, students that are on exchange period tend to use English over their home-language when meeting up with students from other countires (retrived from the movie "Potluck"; based on the true experience of an Erasmus student).
Robert Phillipson working together with his wife, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas introduced the theory of “Linguistic Imperialism” in his book Linguistic Imperialism (1992). He discussed in detail the tendency of local languages and literatures being ‘neglected’ with the presence of the English language in that particular land. Recently, he proposed the notion of English being either a lingua franca or lingua frankensteinia ; how local languages are marginalized with the development and dominance of the English languages - resulting in changes made by the government with regards to their language policies (Phillipson, 2003).
(to be resumed...)
Introduction
When it first began in 1998, the Bologna process (also known as the Bologna-Prague-Berlin Process) started up with the participation of the Ministers of 4 countries namely France, United Kingdom, Germany and Italy) and as it is today, the number of signatories to the Bologna Agreement has already reached 46. It can be described as a succesful revolution for the Europe higher education sector and one that can be proven to be as succesful as the European Economic Integration. The deepening of the Bologna process has gone a long way through a number of ministerial meetings, declarations and policy documents. Nevertheless, it is not only a top-down process but from time to time it has also result to a bottom-up cooperation.
While Europe has been a model of Regional and Economic Integration for other regions in the world, the EHEA (through the Bologna process) should also be taken into consideration as one of the education reforms in these other regions. After more than 10 years from the Bologna Declaration which aims to create a European Higher Education reform through the understanding and common interest of the signatory countries (not merely imposed upon them) has certainly reached a promising stage concerning the "social-dimension" of the Bologna Process:
We share the societal aspiration that the student body entering, participating in and completing higher education at all levels should reflect the diversity of our populations. We reaffirm the importance of students being able to complete their studies without obstacles related to their social and economic background. (London Communiqué 2007, 2.18)
The Bologna Process: Objectives
As mentioned earlier, the Bologna Process is an effort to create a European Higher Education Area by 2010, where students are able to benefit from the wide range of higher education courses - through the transparent and smoother recognition process of the respective degrees. It is done with the vision of creating a more competitive Higher Education Area beginning at the intraregional level. There are three key priorities in the Bologna process which consists of i) the introduction of the three cycle system (bachelor/master/doctorate), ii) quality assurance of the higher education system, and iii) recognition of qualifications and periods of study. These main objectives was later made detail through several reform tools to addressed the implementation of the Bologna reforms. The main features of the tools for the Bologna reform was through the transparent system based on the three cycle element in the plan since Berlin (2003). There was also the introduction of a credit transfer and accumulation system (the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, ECTS) which was induced to remove barriers pertaining to students' mobility and clearer recognition of qualifications. A uniform outline containing the context, nature, status and level of the studies that were undertaken by the respective graduate was also widely used known as the Diploma Supplement.
The Realization
Previously, it was mentioned that the Bologna process was not only a top-down approach beginning at the ministerial level but it has developed to be a bottom-up process as well. It explains that the nature of the whole reform for the EHEA is decentralized as it has involved in 46 sovereign countries (EUROSTAT Statistical Books 2009 Edition) with no country as the leader. Each and every signatories drafts their own guidelines based on the Bologna Declaration themselves. This portrays the main element of the EHEA where Europe is in the reform phase of its higher education system - to become involved in forming a more diverse and adaptable system. The more visible changes in the higher education system of every country varies such as new degree structures, medium of language and many more.
Traditionally, matters related to higher education has been addressed solely at the national level and by respective ministries to handle this issue with limited discussion and cooperation among other countries in the region. However, the Bologna process through the ratified Bologna Declaration has made visible and can be pronounced as a more 'legitimate' pledge of all the member countries to reform the structures of their higher education system in a convergent way. It is made for these countries to engage in coordinating their policies. Again, the Bologna process seeks to modify and made better this position by addressing the (Higher Education) issue more internationally rather than just at the national level. The removal of barriers for students' mobility, smoother and more transparent recognition of degree certificates was chosen as amongst the main objective due to the fact that these are the factors that can create a common interest among all the member countries.
However, in the pursuit of academic mobility within the EHEA, this calls for a comprehensive measures not only in the reform tools but in the wide range of communicative skills by everyone involved in the process especially students and the academic staff. These significant issues is more of an 'embedded' one as it was not mentioned relatively in the Bologna Declaration. They include:
i) A different medium of instruction (language) in classes and academic materials.
ii) International communication skills
In other words, one has to be aware of the linguistic and communicative demands of this new system. Another issue that needs to be alerted amongst the spill-over effect of this reform is the cultural assimilation process that students or academic staff undergo. However, this particular issues should ot be seen on the negative aspect as we all now that culture is a dynamic process and it is never wrong to learn new ones from time to time (refer Culture Contact as A Dynamic Process). In fact, this was among the widely recognized strength of the Bologna Process where higher learning institutions that are involved in the program is known as melting pot for the exchange students for example Vi's-a-vis the Erasmus Program. The Erasmus Program is an effort by the European Union (EU) to facilitate the Bologna Process through funds and scholarships which is also part of the EU's flagship programme for worldwide academic cooperation, Erasmus Mundus.
As mentioned by Reichert and Tauch (2003),
“Preparing graduates for the European labour market is regarded as one of the three most prominent driving forces of the Bologna Process. Together with the enhancement of academic quality, this constitutes the most frequently mentioned force behind the Bologna Process, according to the representatives of ministries, rectors’ conferences and higher education institutions. Student associations also regard this as the most important driving force, together with the competitiveness of the national HE systems.”
To reflect on this, the Bologna process also aimed at a higher vision not only for European Higher Education Area but also, it works in line with the European Economic Integration to make Europe more advanced in both its economy and labour market. It is about the creation of a knowledge-based economy (k-economy), parallel with the recently-ratified Reform Treaty (also known as the Lisbon Agenda). There has been numerous effort done by the European Union and other institutions in Europe to strenghten the region and their relationship with other regions.
Freedom of Movement
"Mobility ...is one of the core elements of the Bologna Process, creating opportunities for personal growth, developing international cooperation between individuals and institutions, enhancing the quality of higher education and research, and giving substance to the European dimension" - London Communique, p. 2
The Bologna process which one of its main objective is to smoothen the mobility of students and academic staff in the region has significantly developed to create a single mrke for the higher education sector in Europe. This allies together with the European single market area to improve and reduce the gap between the rich and less richer nations in the region. The refor has witnessed measures taken by institutions of higher educatio to restructure their degree courses (bachelor/masters/doctorate) to become more competitive and meet the international standard. This in return will help to facilitate the recognition process of the students degrees thus accomplishing one of the main objctives of the Bologna reform.
Apart than this, it can be observed that more and more universities have widen their door to foreign staff (Jan Fiegel, 2009). Despite this benefitial new development as a result of the reform, the academic staff was alerted with other new rising matters. Although there are more oppurtunities for working abroad (intraregion) some academic staff discovered complications due to practicality issues. Matters such as pensions, access to health and social services and re-entry issues have been one of the main complications. Besides that, some countries do not recognise lecturers as being of equal status to those who are born-citizens of the country.
Demand for English
Despite all these rising issues, the Bologna process have seen and increased in its participation rather significantly. More and more countries have join the ally for this higher education reform and some other regions has taken measures to make the Bologna process as reference point to restructure their higher education market and them more competitive to the global market. When matters are becoming global, certainly there are other issues that would also arise - for example, the medium of instruction to serve the purpose of the Bologna reform.
There are increasing signs that more institutions of higher education are producing more English-based module for their degree courses. (Emma Gatti, 2008) Paul Bennet, the senior national offical at the University and College Union (UCU) also mentioned that institutions of higher education in Nordic countries and the Netherlands have rapidly increased their offer of master's degrees - in mainly disciplines that are taught in English while other EU member states are considering to undertake the same measure. As the Bologna reform is to also stimulate academic exchange, this whole range of new courses in English have created the demand for more English-speaking academicians/academic staff. This is one of the spill-over effects of the reform where the higher education industry is shifting towards the use of English. Although in the Bologna Declaration (1999) did not mention anywhere regarding the compulsory use of English language for its reform process, there seemed to be a common understanding among the participating countries.
The growing use of English and the preference for this particular language over the home-language of a country has always been an on-going issue in the EU. An excerpt on history - since the 2004 enlargement process, the EU has witnessed an increased from 11 to 20 working languages. Some might call this a "linguistic diversity" but this phenomena, so to speak, had later changed from time to time. A single language has (over time) superceeded the use of other working languages in the EU; which is English. Having said this, one of the growing compications in relation with the Bologna reform is about the same notion on language. For exaple in the Erasmus program by the Eurpean Union, students that are on exchange period tend to use English over their home-language when meeting up with students from other countires (retrived from the movie "Potluck"; based on the true experience of an Erasmus student).
Robert Phillipson working together with his wife, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas introduced the theory of “Linguistic Imperialism” in his book Linguistic Imperialism (1992). He discussed in detail the tendency of local languages and literatures being ‘neglected’ with the presence of the English language in that particular land. Recently, he proposed the notion of English being either a lingua franca or lingua frankensteinia ; how local languages are marginalized with the development and dominance of the English languages - resulting in changes made by the government with regards to their language policies (Phillipson, 2003).
(to be resumed...)
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